Late twentieth-century America saw a widespread moral panic surrounding the alleged rising threat of occultist behaviour. Due to the satanic components present in growing forms of popular culture, specifically rock and heavy metal music, American society was whipped into a frenzy, adamant that the morally corrupting music was inviting the devil into the lives of their children. Using Stanley Cohen’s model of moral panic as presented in Folk Devils and Moral Panics, this article will examine the folk devils and moral entrepreneurs of the satanic panic over rock and heavy metal music, starting with the 1960s and ending at the turn of the century.

Rock music has been provocative since its emergence as a new genre of music. While most other music styles have indeed met criticisms, controversy has followed rock bands and musicians for over half a century, with one of the long-running criticisms against the genre being its strong associations with Satan and the occult. However, rock is not the first genre that has been denounced as being ‘the devil’s music’; the idea that rock music and Satan were connected originally developed from blues and jazz. Blues music was invented in the southern states of America in the late nineteenth-century by black musicians and took its inspiration from African American spirituals and work songs that were created before the abolishment of slavery. Jazz music was an upbeat style inspired by blues artists and gained enormous popularity in the 1920s, and both genres were immensely popular among black musicians because they symbolised progress, modernity and “lacked any residual associations with slavery, minstrel music and its demeaning stereotypes”. Blues and jazz music allowed black musicians the opportunity to sing about their painful histories and the racism and violence that they experienced in their daily lives under Jim Crow segregation laws. However, as Jason Bivins argues, this new form of ‘rebel’ music which promoted “cathartic release, ecstasy or passion is often stigmatised as licensing hedonism or disregard for authority”, and the genres were thus accused of “manifesting darker qualities like the hypnotic, the seductive, the animal, or even the demonic”.

Blues musicians incorporated the devil in their lyrics to raise the reality of being black in post-Reconstruction era America. Adam Gussow argues that the devil was used as a symbol because of its “creole origins” and “complex racial valences”; it was a metaphor for black musicians to sing about white violence, or even to repurpose racial slurs. However, the mere use of the devil as an icon as well as the increasingly secular music style set in stone the association between music and Satan. In the 1930s, blues musician Robert Johnson was even accused of selling his soul to the devil at a crossroads “in exchange for unearthly talents on the guitar”. Some blues performers went on to adopt the devil as a part of their image, though Gussow describes this adoption as being “with a greater sense of irony than the myth of hellhound-haunted crossroad pacts suggests”. The context of black musicians being connected to Satan demonstrates that the early stages of moral panic began far before the emergence of rock as a genre. Black musicians were considered a threat, were alienated and subject to hostility from whites and further reacted to their label of folk devils by purposefully incorporating the devil into their music as a reaction. The rock and roll music style developed from the work of these black blues musicians, and by the 1940s and 1950s the tempo of the music became faster and electric guitars were the new instrument of choice. Black musicians were the pioneers of the new genre, like Chuck Berry and Little Richard, and they created music that resonated with the growing generation of teenagers in America. However, it was not long before the popular genre was ‘adopted’ by white musicians like Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly. Young people from all ethnicities and social groups enjoyed listening to rock music, which is why the moral panic began to take hold in America. White teenagers were being ‘exposed’ to black music culture on a wide scale, and fears of race mixing emerged when parents thought that “young black and white kids would get together over this music that had a rhythmic, primitive, sensuous beat”. It was the blatant sexuality utilised by rock music that also made Americans believe that the standards of morals were declining. Utilising the argument of moral panic investigator Stanley Cohen, “successful moral panics owe their appeal to their ability to find points of resonance with wider anxieties”, and this is definitely present in the moral panic over rock music as the predominantly black music style was growing in popularity amid great hostility and division over segregation laws. Parents were terrified of the thought of their white teenagers dancing and singing sexual songs with black teenagers, especially given the long history of fears of “race mixing and of lynching black men because of their perceived desire for white women”. Furthermore, young white audiences were listening to rock in the context of the growing civil rights movement, and the music allowed them to “reject white middle-class culture, racism, colonialism, and fascism”.

The 1960s saw contextual conservative social concerns over the emergence of new youth subcultures and countercultures; alongside the developing civil rights movement were hippies experimenting with psychedelic drugs, gay liberation and feminist movements and anti-war protests following the Vietnam War. The traditional norms and values of the 1950s were being rejected by the youths of America, and they represented their new ways of life through unconventional appearances, drugs and music tastes. Rock music aided this rejection and allowed these countercultures to grow because musicians were able to sing about previously taboo topics like drugs and sex, and the genre also branched out to include different subgenres like the psychedelic rock of the Beatles as an example. The Beatles, one of the most influential British bands of the twentieth-century, reached America in 1964 after the news of the ‘Beatlemania’ phenomenon in Britain crossed the Atlantic. Jonathon Gould, author of Can’t Buy Me Love, remarks how The Beatles represented a “broad confluence of pop enthusiasm, student activism, and mass bohemianism that would flood the political, social, and cultural landscape”. The band were influential in a way that had previously only been accessible by religious and political leaders; they were the “spokesmen […] of this great international upheaval”. The influence the Beatles possessed demonstrates a flaw in Cohen’s moral panic theorisations; Angela McRobbie and Sarah L. Thornton criticise Cohen as presenting “monolithic societal or hegemonic reactions” to a moral panic. This is not true when using the moral panic over rock musicians as an example; as argued by Goode and Ben-Yehuda, “deviants are not ‘folk devils’ to everyone” and whilst some members of society believed that bands were morally degrading the country, there were others who enjoyed the music and found it revolutionary. Furthermore, Cohen argues that a folk devil is considered as a “soft target, easily denounced, [with] little power and preferably without access to the battlefields of cultural politics”. This is certainly not true of bands like the Beatles, who had incredible influence over cultural politics, which is demonstrated by their political stance over race in 1964.

When the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964, not every venue accepted desegregation, and some acted in defiance of the bill. The Gator Bowl in Jacksonville, Florida decided the Beatles’ performance on 11th of September would be segregated in defiance of the desegregation bill that had recently been passed. The Beatles issued a press statement that claimed “we will not appear unless Negroes are allowed to sit anywhere” five days before their show. This was a big deal; four musicians from Britain were able to force a venue to integrate their audience in America, demonstrating the vast influence that musicians held. It is interesting to note that I was unable to find evidence of the occurrence in newspaper archives, apart from one article that was published the day of their performance by The Florida Times-Union, a generally conservative newspaper. The article described the band as being “a passing fad, perfectly timed and fitted to the mores, morals and ideals of a fast-paced, troubled time”. The article did not talk about the issue of segregation that the Beatles brought up, but instead chose to disparage the band and criticise their “high pitched monotone” and appearance, which is indicative of Cohen’s stage of hostility and alienation of the folk devil in a moral panic. Furthermore, this outspoken act taken by musicians, especially in the context of a highly volatile society with racial tensions, demonstrates how musicians could be considered as a ‘threat’ to the traditional norms and values that America had in the 1960s.

Threatened values continued with the Beatles’ 1967 album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band with lyrics containing “allusions to sex, psychedelic drugs, and carnival-like eccentricity”, which was greatly enjoyed by hippy countercultures who gathered in California for the Summer of Love Phenomenon in the same year. A news article from The New York Times in 1967 denounced hippies by claiming that they enjoy “LSD, marijuana, nude parties, sex, […] not paying their rent, making noise, and rock ‘n’ roll music”, and the article distanced the counterculture from mainstream society by noting the different appearance and styles they wore. This demonstrates there were multiple folk devils involved in the moral panic; not only were musicians alienated by their appearance and treated with hostility, but their fans also received the same treatment. However, bands were considered to be a greater folk devil due to their influence over the fans; if prominent musicians openly experimented with drugs then teenage fans might be inclined to do the same. Experimenting with psychedelia further allowed young people the opportunity to explore religious symbolism and mysticism that may not have been considered traditional. John Lennon, the lead singer of the Beatles, caused further controversy other than openly talking about drugs in 1966 as he claimed that the band were “more popular than Jesus now”. Whilst Lennon was merely voicing his opinion that the popularity of Christianity was dwindling amongst teenagers, his comment was taken out of context by the media and resulted in bad publicity, which further stimulated “bonfires of Beatles records and radio station apathy”. I believe that moral entrepreneurs in the form of religious groups began to fervently oppose musicians after Lennon’s comments because religion was suddenly under threat, especially given the context of a growing anti-religion: Satanism.

Traditional Christian views were challenged by the formation of new religions like the Church of Satan, which was founded by Anton LaVey in California the same year that John Lennon announced that religion was losing its importance. The founding of the Church of Satan marked a shift in attitudes in society; Satanism represented a belief in “pride, liberty, and individualism – qualities often defined as Evil by those who worship external deities”, and instead of “bending a knee in worship to […] such mythical entities, he places himself at the centre of his own subjective universe”. New members of the Church of Satan were drawn to the television and media coverage that LaVey received, and despite the new religion being named after Satan they did not promote evil rituals and cult behaviour, but humanistic values and truth. Nevertheless, the media widely reported on the church and exaggerated its activities, claiming that Satanism was “the dark side of the occult […] it involves a reversal of all moral values. It is evil incarnate and unending”. Aleister Crowley also became a popular figure for Satanists; he was an early twentieth-century occultist and writer from England and a source of inspiration for those who were interested in mysticism and magic. Through LaVey’s teachings and a revival of interest in Crowley, “satanic symbolism started to bleed into mainstream rock” music. For example, Jimmy Page from Led Zeppelin, who were increasing in popularity in the U.S. by the late 1960s, had an interest in Crowley and an image of Crowley appeared on The Beatles’ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band LP sleeve, leading to further scrutiny over the band’s religious leanings. As “anything deemed subversive to the God-feared norm was often considered a direct display of devil worship”, musicians that aligned themselves with the new religion, or even showed an interest in its teachings, were automatically denounced as evil Satan worshippers.

The threat of rock music rose further when artists incorporated Satan into their music instead of simply alluding to it. The Rolling Stones released Their Satanic Majesties Request in 1967, the title of which blatantly suggested that the band had satanic sympathies. Marcus Collins argues that the Rolling Stones “stoked the fires of controversy by aligning themselves with Satan […] in the album title and by evoking drug experiences on the record”. However, whilst other musicians had previously dabbled with themes of the occult in their music, the 1968 hit ‘Sympathy for the Devil’ by the Rolling Stones saw lead singer Mick Jagger taking the form of Satan himself, exclaiming “Just call me Lucifer, Cause I’m in need of some restraint”. Such controversial lyrics, coupled with a drum beat that resembles traditional African music, soon resulted in significant backlash for the band with a journalist at the Hartford Courant claiming that the band “seems to have a fetish about Satan […] Satan, hell, or the devil is mentioned on almost every cut”. Mick Jagger’s characterisation of the devil, as well as his prolific drug use and sexual connotations, saw him becoming “a folk devil for a broader attack on youth subculture” because he represented everything that moral entrepreneurs were against, and it could be argued that the eventual rise of blatant occultism in music was stimulated by Jagger’s public displays of ‘sympathy for the devil’. Further controversy was stirred up over the Rolling Stones after their performance at the Altamont Speedway Free Festival in 1969, where a young man named Meredith Grey was murdered in the audience. The tragedy was highly publicised, with liberal music magazine the Rolling Stone blaming the events on Jagger’s “diabolical egotism”, The Post-Crescent questioning if it was “the devil at work in modern-day society” and many others quoting lyrics from the song ‘Sympathy for the Devil’ and claiming that it influenced the murder. However, this was a case of misreporting and the song had actually played earlier on in the performance, which compliments Cohen’s model of moral panic as it demonstrates how moral entrepreneurs could misreport events and stimulate concern in the public.

The events of the 1960s demonstrate that the moral panic over rock music emerged due to wider anxieties that previously existed in society, from fears of race mixing to the declining ‘morals’ of youth countercultures. Concern over the potential threat, rock music and its fans, was generated because it amplified these anxieties through its experimentations with new ideas of sexual liberation, psychedelia and mysticism. Furthermore, moral entrepreneurs began to alienate the folk devils and reacted to them in a hostile fashion because traditional values of morality and religion came under threat due to the emergence of anti-religious groups. Whilst there were some deviations from Cohen’s theorisations in the 1960s, the majority of events in the first chapter compliment his model of moral panics.

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